Numerari from KnowledgeDoor---The scientific calculator with graphing, unit keypads,
complex numbers, constants, advanced functions, user-defined keys, quick copy, and more! Learn more (Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)

Chlorine

Chlorine Navigation

Other Elements

By Name

By Symbol

By Number

Quantity

Chlorine Quick Reference

Click button to see citations

Notes

Symbol

Cl

Atomic Number

17

Atomic Weight

Rounded

35.45

for regular calculations

Standard

35.446 to 35.457

for precise calculations

Oxidation States

 7

less common with disagreement

 6

less common

 5

less common with disagreement

 4

less common

 3

less common with disagreement

 2

less common

 1

less common with disagreement

 0

less common

-1

more common

Pauling Electronegativity

3.16

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Orbital Filling Order

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Term Symbol

2P3/2

see expanded configuration ...

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

12.96763 eV

II  (2)

23.8136 eV 

III (3)

39.61 eV   

IV  (4)

53.4652 eV 

see all 17 energies ...

Electron Affinity

3.612724 ± 0.000027 eV

29138.59 ± 0.22 cm-1  

Density

gas

25 °C, 1 atm

2.898 g/L 

273.15 K, 1 atm

3.164 g/L 

liquid, 172.12 K

1.723 g/ml

solid, 93 K

2.03 g/cm3

Molar Volume

gas, 273.15 K, 1 atm

22.4129 L/mol

Melting Point

1 atm

172.12 K

Boiling Point

1 atm

239.11 K

Thermal Conductivity

gas

400 K, 1 atm

0.0124 W/(m K)

300 K, 1 atm

0.0089 W/(m K)

290 K, 1 atm

0.0085 W/(m K)

280 K, 1 atm

0.0082 W/(m K)

270 K, 1 atm

0.0078 W/(m K)

see all 38 conductivities ...

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

99 pm

double bond

95 pm

triple bond

93 pm

Atomic Radius

99 pm

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

6.41 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

20.403 kJ/mol

Quantity

Chlorine Atomic Structure

Notes

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

12.96763 eV

II  (2)

23.8136 eV 

III (3)

39.61 eV   

IV  (4)

53.4652 eV 

see all 17 energies ...

Electron Affinity

3.612724 ± 0.000027 eV

29138.59 ± 0.22 cm-1  

Electron Binding Energies

K    (1s)

2822.4 eV

LI   (2s)

 270 eV  

LII  (2p1/2)

 202 eV  

LIII (2p3/2)

 200 eV  

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Orbital Filling Order

[Ne] 3s2 3p5

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Term Symbol

2P3/2

see expanded configuration ...

Clementi-Raimondi Effective Nuclear Charge

1s

Orbital Exponent

16.5239

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

1

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

16.5239

Zeff = ζ × n

2s

Orbital Exponent

 5.7152

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

2

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

11.430 

Zeff = ζ × n

see all 5 effective nuclear charges ...

Screening Percentage

64.1%

Fluorescence Yields

ωK

0.099  

ωL1

0.00012

ωL2

0.00024

ωL3

0.00024

Coster-Kronig Yields

F12

0.32

F13

0.62

Quantity

Chlorine Physical Properties

Notes

Density

gas

25 °C, 1 atm

2.898 g/L 

273.15 K, 1 atm

3.164 g/L 

liquid, 172.12 K

1.723 g/ml

solid, 93 K

2.03 g/cm3

Molar Mass

Rounded

35.45 g/mol

for regular calculations

Standard

35.446 g/mol to 35.457 g/mol

for precise calculations

Molar Volume

gas, 273.15 K, 1 atm

22.4129 L/mol

Physical Form

green-yellow gas

Speed of Sound

gas

400.00 K, 106.64 kPa

246.982 m/s

300.00 K, 138.32 kPa

213.747 m/s

290.01 K, 96.43 kPa

210.809 m/s

270.00 K, 102.60 kPa

203.272 m/s

260.00 K, 115.51 kPa

199.149 m/s

see all 54 speeds of sound ...

Dielectric Constant

liquid

2.0 

142 °F

1.5 

32 °F

2.0 

-50 °F

2.1 

208 K

2.15

Gram Atomic Volume

19 cm3

Quantity

Chlorine Atomic Interaction

Notes

Oxidation States

 7

less common with disagreement

 6

less common

 5

less common with disagreement

 4

less common

 3

less common with disagreement

 2

less common

 1

less common with disagreement

 0

less common

-1

more common

Pauling Electronegativity

3.16

Mulliken-Jaffe Electronegativity

hybrid14.3% s

3.10

orbitalp

2.76

Sanderson Electronegativity

3.475

Allred-Rochow Electronegativity

2.83

Configuration Energy

electron volt units

16.97 eV

Pauling units

 2.869  

Allen Electronegativity

2.869

Allred Electronegativity

oxidation state: 1

3.16

Boyd-Edgecombe Electronegativity

3.05

Ghosh-Gupta Electronegativity

7.2923 eV

Nagle Electronegativity

2.82

Pearson Absolute Electronegativity

8.30 eV

Smith Electronegativity

oxidation state: 1

2.9

oxidation state: -1

3.1

Chemical Hardness

4.68 eV

Cohesive Energy

per mole

135 kJ/mol    

per atom

  1.40 eV/atom

Quantity

Chlorine Thermodynamics

Notes

Melting Point

1 atm

172.12 K

Boiling Point

1 atm

239.11 K

Thermal Conductivity

gas

400 K, 1 atm

0.0124 W/(m K)

300 K, 1 atm

0.0089 W/(m K)

290 K, 1 atm

0.0085 W/(m K)

280 K, 1 atm

0.0082 W/(m K)

270 K, 1 atm

0.0078 W/(m K)

see all 38 conductivities ...

Triple Point

temperature

172.17 ± 0.05 K

pressure

0.01374 atm

Critical Point

temperature

416.956 K

pressure

7.9914 MPa

Vapor Pressure

-34.2 °C

100 kPa

-76.1 °C

10 kPa

-103.6 °C

1 kPa

see all 16 pressures ...

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

6.41 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

20.403 kJ/mol

Isobaric Molar Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

33.949 J/(mol K)

Isobaric Specific Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

0.479 J/(g K)

Quantity

Chlorine Identification

Notes

CAS Number

7782-50-5

DOT Number

1017

ICSC Number

0126

RTECS Number

FO2100000

UN Number

1017

Quantity

Chlorine Atomic Size

Notes

Atomic Radius

99 pm

Orbital Radius

72.5 pm

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

99 pm

double bond

95 pm

triple bond

93 pm

Cordero Covalent Radius

102 pm

Shannon-Prewitt Crystal Radius

ion charge: -1, coordination number: 6

167 pm

ion charge: +5, coordination number: 3, pyramidal

 26 pm

ion charge: +7

coordination number: 4

 22 pm

coordination number: 6

 41 pm

Shannon-Prewitt Effective Ionic Radius

ion charge: -1, coordination number: 6

181 pm

ion charge: +5, coordination number: 3, pyramidal

 12 pm

ion charge: +7

coordination number: 4

  8 pm

coordination number: 6

 27 pm

Pauling Empirical Crystal Radius

ion charge: -1

181 pm

Pauling Univalent Radius

ion charge: +1

 49 pm

ion charge: -1

181 pm

Batsanov Crystallographic Van Der Waals Radius

1.8×102 pm

Batsanov Equilibrium Van Der Waals Radius

205 pm

Bondi Van Der Waals Radius

175 pm

Pauling Van Der Waals Radius

180 pm

Slater Atomic-Ionic Radius

100 pm

Quantity

Chlorine Crystal Structure

Notes

Nearest Neighbor Distance

93 K, 1 atm

202 pm

Quantity

Chlorine History

Notes

Discovery

date of discovery

1774

discoverer

Carl Wilhelm Scheele

birth

December 9 (or 19), 1742

death

May 21, 1786

location of discovery

Uppsala, Sweden

Origin of Element Name

origin

khloros

origin description

color—Greek for yellow green

Origin of Element Symbol

symbol: Cl

origin

chlorine

origin description

element name

U.S. Towns Named After Elements

Chloride, Arizona

Chloride, New Mexico

Formerly Used or Proposed Element Names and Symbols

name

muriaticum

matching symbol

M

Quantity

Chlorine Abundances

Notes

Earth's Crust

1.45×102 ppm

Earth's Mantle

30 ppm

primitive mantle

Earth's Core

200 ppm

Bulk Earth

76 ppm

Ocean Water

1.987×104 ppm

River Water

8 ppm

U.S. Coal

614 ppm

Human Body

95 g

based on a 70 kg "reference man"

Human Bone

900 ppm

Human Hair

1×103 ppm to 4.8×103 ppm

Human Kidney

12×103 ppm

Human Liver

3×103 ppm to 7.2×103 ppm

Human Muscle

2×103 ppm to 5.2×103 ppm

Human Nail

1×103 ppm to 3.6×103 ppm

Bacteria

2300 ppm

Ferns

6×103 ppm

Fungi

10000 ppm

Solar System

5240

number of atoms for every 106 atoms of silicon

Sun

5.5 ± 0.3

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Meteorites

5.26 ± 0.06

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Quantity

Chlorine Nomenclature

Notes

Element Names in Other Languages

French

chlore

German

Chlor

Italian

cloro

Spanish

cloro

Portuguese

cloro

Anions or Anionic Substituent Groups

chloride (general)

Cl-, chloride(1-)

Cations or Cationic Substituent Groups

chlorine (general)

Cl+, chlorine(1+)

Ligands

chlorido (general)

Cl-, chlorido(1-)

Heteroatomic Anion

chlorate

'a' Term—Substitutive Nomenclature

chlora

'y' Term—Chains and Rings Nomenclature

chlory

References    (Click the button next to a value above to see complete citation information for that entry)

Albright, Thomas A., and Jeremy K. Burdett. Problems in Molecular Orbital Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Allen, Leland C. "Electronegativity Is the Average One-Electron Energy of the Valence-Shell Electrons in Ground-State Free Atoms." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 111, number 25, 1989, pp. 9003–9014. doi:10.1021/ja00207a003

Allen, Leland C. "Electronegativity Is the Average One-Electron Energy of the Valence-Shell Electrons in Ground-State Free Atoms." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 111, number 25, 1989, pp 9003–9014. doi:10.1021/ja00207a003

Allred, A. L. "Electronegativity Values from Thermochemical Data." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 17, number 3-4, 1961, pp. 215–221. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5

Allred, A. L., and E. G. Rochow. "A Scale of Electronegativity Based on Electrostatic Force." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 1958, pp. 264–268. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2

Anders, Edward, and Nicolas Grevesse. "Abundances of the Elements: Meteoritic and Solar." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, volume 53, number 1, 1989, pp. 197–214. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90286-X

Andersen, T., H. K. Haugen, and H. Hotop. "Binding Energies in Atomic Negative Ions: III." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 28, number 6, 1999, pp. 1511–1533.

Barsan, Michael E., editor. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Cincinnati, Ohio: NIOSH Publications, 2007.

Batsanov, S. S. "Van der Waals Radii of Elements." Inorganic Materials, volume 37, number 9, 2001, pp. 871–885. See abstract

Bearden, J. A., and A. F. Burr. "Reevaluation of X-Ray Atomic Energy Levels." Reviews of Modern Physics, volume 39, number 1, 1967, pp. 125–142. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.39.125

Bondi, A. "Van der Waals Volumes and Radii." The Journal of Physical Chemistry, volume 68, number 3, 1964, pp. 441–451. doi:10.1021/j100785a001

Bowen, H. J. M. Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. London: Academic Press, Inc., 1979.

Boyd, Russell J., and Kenneth E. Edgecombe. "Atomic and Group Electronegativities from the Electron-Density Distributions of Molecules." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 110, number 13, 1988, pp 4182–4186. doi:10.1021/ja00221a014

Bratsch, Steven G. "Revised Mulliken Electronegativities: I. Calculation and Conversion to Pauling Units." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 1, 1988, pp. 34–41. doi:10.1021/ed065p34

Cardona, M., and L. Ley, editors. Photoemission in Solids I: General Principles. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1978.

Cassebaum, H., and J. A. Schufle. "Scheele's Priority for the Discovery of Oxygen." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 52, number 7, 1975, pp. 442–444. doi:10.1021/ed052p442

Chase, Malcolm W., editor. JPCRD Monograph No. 9: NIST-JANAF Thermochemical Tables, (Part I and Part II). Woodbury, NY: American Chemical Society and the American Institute of Physics, 1998.

Chauvin, Remi. "Explicit Periodic Trend of van der Waals Radii." The Journal of Physical Chemistry, volume 96, number 23, 1992, pp. 9194–9197. doi:10.1021/j100202a023

Clementi, E., and D. L. Raimondi. "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 38, number 11, 1963, pp. 2686–2689. doi:10.1063/1.1733573

Cohen, E. Richard, David R. Lide, and George L. Trigg, editors. AlP Physics Desk Reference, 3rd edition. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 2003.

Connelly, Neil G., Ture Damhus, Richard M. Hartshorn, and Alan T. Hutton. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations 2005. Cambridge: RSC Publishing, 2005.

Cordero, Beatriz, Verónica Gómez, Ana E. Platero-Prats, Marc Revés, Jorge Echeverría, Eduard Cremades, Flavia Barragán, and Santiago Alvarez. "Covalent Radii Revisited." Dalton Transactions, number 21, 2008, pp 2832–2838. doi:10.1039/b801115j

Cox, P. A. The Elements: Their Origin, Abundance and Distribution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

de Podesta, Michael. Understanding the Properties of Matter, 2nd edition. London: Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Dronskowski, Richard. Computational Chemistry of Solid State Materials. Weinheim, Germany: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2005.

Ebbing, Darrell D., and Steven D. Gammon. General Chemistry, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.

Emsley, John. Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Emsley, John. The Elements, 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Firestone, Richard B. Table of Isotopes, 8th edition, volume 2. Edited by Virginia S. Shirley, with assistant editors Coral M. Baglin, S. Y. Frank Chu, and Jean Zipkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

Galasso, Francis S. Structure and Properties of Inorganic Solids. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1970.

Ghosh, Dulal C., and Kartick Gupta. "A New Scale Of Electronegativity Of 54 Elements Of Periodic Table Based On Polarizability Of Atoms." Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 2006, pp. 895–911. doi:10.1142/S0219633606002726

Greenwood, N. N., and A. Earnshaw. Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd edition. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.

Gwyn Williams. Electron Binding Energies. http://www.jlab.org/~gwyn/ebindene.html. Accessed on April 30, 2010.

Ho, C. Y., R. W. Powell, and P. E. Liley. "Thermal Conductivity of the Elements: A Comprehensive Review." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 3, supplement 1, 1974, pp. I–1 to I–796.

Huheey, James E., Ellen A. Keiter, and Richard L Keiter. Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity, 4th edition. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993.

Hurly, J. J. "Thermophysical Properties of Chlorine from Speed-of-Sound Measurements." International Journal of Thermophysics, volume 23, number 2, 2002, pp. 455–475. doi:10.1023/A:1015109503116

Ihde, Aaron J. The Development of Modern Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1984.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Chlorine. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc01/icsc0126.htm. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Chlorine. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc01/icsc0126.htm. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

Kittel, Charles. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005.

Krause, M. O. "Atomic Radiative and Radiationless Yields for K and L Shells." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 8, number 2, 1979, pp. 307–327.

Liboff, Richard L. Introductory Quantum Mechanics, 3rd edition. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1998.

Lide, David R., editor. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th edition. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

Mann, Joseph B., Terry L. Meek, and Leland C. Allen. "Configuration Energies of the Main Group Elements." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 122, number 12, 2000, pp. 2780–2783. doi:10.1021/ja992866e

Manuel, O., editor. Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.

Marshall, James L. Discovery of the Elements: A Search for the Fundamental Principles of the Universe, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2002.

Martin, W. C. "Electronic Structure of the Elements." The European Physical Journal C — Particles and Fields, volume 15, number 1–4, 2000, pp. 78–79. doi:10.1007/BF02683401

McDonough, W. F. "Compositional Model for the Earth's Core." pp. 547–568 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Mechtly, Eugene A. "Properties of Materials." pp. 4–1 to 4–33 in Reference Data For Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications. By Mac E. Van Valkenburg, edited by Wendy M. Middleton. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002. doi:10.1016/B978-075067291-7/50006-6

Miessler, Gary L., and Donald A. Tarr. Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Moore, Charlotte E. Ionization Potentials and Ionization Limits Derived from the Analyses of Optical Spectra. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, 1970.

Nagle, Jeffrey K. "Atomic Polarizability and Electronegativity." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 112, number 12, 1990, pp. 4741–4747. doi:10.1021/ja00168a019

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Chlorine. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0126.html. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Chlorine. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0126.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances for Chlorine. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh-rtecs/fo200b20.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

Orem, W. H., and R. B. Finkelman. "Coal Formation and Geochemistry." pp. 191–222 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Oxtoby, David W., H. P. Gillis, and Alan Campion. Principles of Modern Chemistry, 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008.

Palme, H., and H. Beer. "Meteorites and the Composition of the Solar Photosphere." pp. 204–206 in Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI: Astronomy and Astrophysics. Edited by H. H. Voigt. New York: Springer–Verlag, 1993. doi:10.1007/10057790_59

Palme, H., and Hugh St. C. O'Neill. "Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition." pp. 1–38 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Partington, J. R. "The Discovery of Oxygen." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 39, number 3, 1962, pp. 123–125. doi:10.1021/ed039p123

Pauling, Linus. The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960.

Pearson, Ralph G. "Absolute Electronegativity and Hardness: Application to Inorganic Chemistry." Inorganic Chemistry, volume 27, number 4, 1988, pp 734–740. doi:10.1021/ic00277a030

Pekka Pyykkö. Self-Consistent, Year-2009 Covalent Radii. http://www.chem.helsinki.fi/~pyykko/Radii09.pdf. Accessed on November 20, 2010.

Prohaska, Thomas, Johanna Irrgeher, Jacqueline Benefield, John K. Böhlke, Lesley A. Chesson, Tyler B. Coplen, Tiping Ding, Philip J. H. Dunn, Manfred Gröning, Norman E. Holden, Harro A. J. Meijer, Heiko Moossen, Antonio Possolo, Yoshio Takahashi, Jochen Vogl, Thomas Walczyk, Jun Wang, Michael E. Wieser, Shigekazu Yoneda, Xiang-Kun Zhu, and Juris Meija. "Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)." Pure and Applied Chemistry, volume 94, number 5, 2022, pp. 573–600. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Double-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements Li-E112." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 46, 2009, pp. 12770–12779. doi:10.1002/chem.200901472

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Single-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements 1-118." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 1, 2009, pp. 186–197. doi:10.1002/chem.200800987

Pyykkö, Pekka, Sebastian Riedel, and Michael Patzschke. "Triple-Bond Covalent Radii." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 11, number 12, 2005, pp. 3511–3520. doi:10.1002/chem.200401299

Ringnes, Vivi. "Origin of the Names of Chemical Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 66, number 9, 1989, pp. 731–738. doi:10.1021/ed066p731

Rohrer, Gregory S. Structure and Bonding in Crystalline Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Sanderson, R. T. Simple Inorganic Substances. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., Inc., 1989.

Sanderson, R. T. "Principles of Electronegativity: Part I. General Nature." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 2, 1988, pp. 112–118. doi:10.1021/ed065p112

Sanderson, R. T. Polar Covalence. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1983.

Sansonetti, J. E., and W. C. Martin. "Handbook of Basic Atomic Spectroscopic Data." Journal Of Physical And Chemical Reference Data, volume 34, number 4, 2005, pp. 1559–2259. doi:10.1063/1.1800011

Shannon, R. D. "Revised Effective Ionic Radii and Systematic Studies of Interatomic Distances in Halides and Chalcogenides." Acta Crystallographica Section A, volume 32, number 5, 1976, pp. 751–767. doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551

Silbey, Robert J., Robert A. Alberty, and Moungi G. Bawendi. Physical Chemistry, 4th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Slater, J. C. "Atomic Radii in Crystals." The Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 41, number 10, 1964, pp. 3199–3204. doi:10.1063/1.1725697

Smith, Derek W. "Electronegativity in Two Dimensions: Reassessment and Resolution of the Pearson-Pauling Paradox." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 67, number 11, 1990, pp. 911–914. doi:10.1021/ed067p911

Smith, Derek W. Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Speight, James G. Perry's Standard Tables and Formulas for Chemical Engineers. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.

U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT), Transport Canada (TC), Secretariat of Transport and Communications of Mexico (SCT), and Centro de Información Química para Emergencias (CIQUIME). 2008 Emergency Response Guidebook.

Vainshtein, Boris K., Vladimir M. Fridkin, and Vladimir L. Indenbom. Structure of Crystals, 2nd edition. Modern Crystallography 2. Edited by Boris K. Vainshtein, A. A. Chernov, and L. A. Shuvalov. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995.

Voigt, H. H., editor. Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin: Springer–Verlag, 1993.

Waber, J. T., and Don T. Cromer. "Orbital Radii of Atoms and Ions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 42, number 12, 1965, pp. 4116–4123. doi:10.1063/1.1695904

Waldron, Kimberley A., Erin M. Fehringer, Amy E. Streeb, Jennifer E. Trosky, and Joshua J. Pearson. "Screening Percentages Based on Slater Effective Nuclear Charge as a Versatile Tool for Teaching Periodic Trends." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 78, number 5, 2001, pp. 635–639. doi:10.1021/ed078p635

Weeks, Mary Elvira, and Henry M. Leicester. Discovery of the Elements, 7th edition. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education, 1968.

Yaws, Carl L. "Liquid Density of the Elements." Chemical Engineering, volume 114, number 12, 2007, pp. 44–46.

Yaws, Carl L. The Yaws Handbook of Physical Properties for Hydrocarbons and Chemicals. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, 2005.

Zefirov, Yu. V. "Comparative Analysis of Systems of van der Waals Radii." Crystallography Reports, volume 42, number 1, 1997, pp. 111–116.

Heaven's Boulevard astronomical sky image for any location, date, and time. Personalize with a picture and message. Great gift for birthdays, anniversaries, or any special event. Learn more
(Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)